Climate Vulnerability: Engineering Geology for Safeguarding Archaeological Heritages of the GBM or Bengal Delta in Bangladesh

Abstract

South and Southeast Asian deltas, formed by rivers originating from the Himalayan–Tibetan-Burman tectonic system—from the Indus to the Yellow River—have supported human civilizations for millennia, including the Indus Civilization (2600–1900 BCE). Their evolution has been shaped by sediment supply, monsoonal climate, Holocene sea-level changes, and subsidence, making them among the most complex and vulnerable landforms under modern climate stress. Global warming has intensified heatwaves, floods, droughts, and sea-level rise. In 2024, Earth’s surface temperature surpassed the 1.5 °C limit of the Paris Agreement, marking the hottest year on record. Rapid Himalayan ice melt adds uncertainty to sediment dynamics, water availability, and delta stability. Among the world’s 44 sinking cities, 30 are in Asia, many located on these deltas. Bangladesh, positioned in the world’s largest delta—the Ganges–Brahmaputra–Meghna (GBM) Delta—is highly exposed to climate impacts such as flooding, drought, salinity, coastal inundation, and heat stress. Its ancient archaeological sites, including Mahasthangarh, Wari-Bateshwar, and Paharpur, are threatened by ground instability, salinity, and extreme weather. Without timely conservation efforts, these invaluable heritages may deteriorate irreversibly. Engineering geology, through multidisciplinary and climate-resilient approaches, offers essential tools for safeguarding and managing the archaeological and cultural heritage of the Bengal Delta and other South Asian deltas.